Meta:Manual of style

This is an official wiki guideline. Its contents are strongly recommended for users of the ClockworkWiki.

This guideline constitutes the complete style manual for editing articles. It attempts to cover everything in an objective manner, however it is updated relatively infrequently and some things are inevitably subjective. Let a staff member know if you have a styling dispute.

Article titles, headings and sections

1. Capitalize the initial letter (except in rare cases, such as eBay), but otherwise follow sentence case (Funding of UNESCO projects), not title case (Funding of UNESCO Projects), except where title case would be expected were the title to occur in ordinary prose.
2. Do not use A, An, or The as the first word (Economy of the Second Empire, not The economy of the Second Empire), unless it is an inseparable part of a name (The Hague) or title of a work (A Clockwork Orange, The Simpsons).
3. Normally use nouns or noun phrases: Early life, not In early life.
4. The final character should not be punctuation unless it is an inseparable part of a name (Saint-Louis-du-Ha! Ha!, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?) or an abbreviation (Inverness City F.C.), or when a closing round bracket or quotation mark is required (John Palmer (1814 schooner)).

Section organisation

1. An article's content should begin with an introductory lead section – a concise summary of the article – which is never divided into sections. The remainder of the article is typically divided into sections.
2. Infoboxes, images, and related content in the lead section must be right-aligned.
3. Certain standardized elements that are not sections go at the very top of the article, before the content of the lead section, and in the following order:
   1. disambiguation hatnotes
   2. No-output templates that indicate the article's established date format and English-language variety, if any
   3. Editorial templates
   4. An infobox, which is optional; usually also includes the first image
   5. An introductory image, when an infobox is not used, or an additional image is desired for the lead section (for unusually long leads, a second image might be mid-way through the lead text)
4. Several kinds of material (mostly optional) may appear after the main body of the article, in the following order:
   1. Books or other works created by the subject of the article, under a section heading "Works", "Publications", "Discography", "Filmography", etc. as appropriate (avoid "Bibliography", confusable with reference citations)
   2. Internal links to related articles, with section heading "See also"
   3. Notes and references, with a section heading "Notes" or "References" (usually the latter), or a separate section for each in this order; avoid "Bibliography", confusable with the subject's works
   4. Relevant books, articles, or other publications that have not been used as sources; use the section heading "Further reading"; be highly selective, as we are not a bibliographic directory
   5. Relevant and appropriate websites that have not been used as sources and do not appear in the earlier appendices, using the heading "External links", which may be made a subsection of "Further reading" (or such links can be integrated directly into the "Further reading" list instead); link templates for sister-project content also usually go at the top of this section when it is present (otherwise in the last section on the page)
   6. The following final items never take section headings:
      1. Internal links organized into navigational boxes
      2. Stub templates, if needed
      3. Authority control metadata, if needed, using
      4. Categories, which should be the very last material in the article's source code.

Section headings

1. Section headings should follow all the guidance for article titles (above), and should be presented in sentence case (Funding of UNESCO projects in developing countries), not title case (Funding of UNESCO Projects in Developing Countries).
2. Use equals signs around a section heading: ==Title== for a primary section, ===Title=== for a subsection, and so on to ======Title======, with no level skipped. =Title= is never used. Spaces around the title (== Title ==) are optional and ignored.
3. The heading must be on its own line, with one blank line just before it; a blank line just after is optional and ignored (but do not use two blank lines, before or after, because that will add unwanted visible space).
4. Section headings should:
   1. Be unique within a page, so that section links lead to the right place.
   2. Not contain links, especially where only part of a heading is linked.
   3. Not contain images or icons.
   4. Not contain <math> markup.
   5. Not contain citations or footnotes.
   6. Not misuse description list markup (;) to create pseudo-headings.
   7. Not contain template transclusions.
5. As a matter of consistent style, section headings should:
   1. Not redundantly refer back to the subject of the article, e.g., Early life, not Smith's early life or His early life.
   2. Not refer to a higher-level heading, unless doing so is shorter or clearer.
   3. Not be numbered or lettered as an outline.
   4. Not be phrased as a question, e.g., Languages, not What languages are spoken in Mexico?.
   5. Not use color or unusual fonts that might cause accessibility problems.
   6. Not wrap headings in markup, which may break their display and also cause additional accessibility issues.
6. An invisible comment on the same line must be inside the == == markup:

==Implications<!--This comment works fine.-->==

==<!--This comment works fine.-->Implications==
==Implications==<!--This comment causes problems.-->
<!--This comment breaks the heading completely.-->==Implications==

Heading-like material

1. The above guidance about sentence case, redundancy, images, and questions also applies to headers of tables (and of table columns and rows). However, table headings can incorporate citations and may begin with, or be, numbers. Unlike page headings, table headers do not automatically generate link anchors. Aside from sentence case in glossaries, the heading advice also applies to the term entries in description lists. If using template-structured glossaries, terms will automatically have link anchors, but will not otherwise. Citations for description-list content go in the term or definition element, as needed.

Dialect of English

1. The ClockworkWiki uses British English as its dialect or variety for both phrasing and spelling. Other forms of English must be changed to this form for the sake of consistency.

Capital letters

1. Article titles and section headings use sentence case, not title case. Other points concerning capitalization are summarized below. The central point is that the ClockworkWiki does not capitalize something unless it is consistently capitalized in a substantial majority of independent, reliable sources.

Capitalization of The

1. Generally, do not capitalize the word "the" in mid-sentence: throughout the United Kingdom, not throughout The United Kingdom. Conventional exceptions include certain proper names (he visited The Hague) and most titles of creative works (Tolkien wrote The Lord of the Rings – but be aware that the may not be part of the title itself, e.g., Homer composed the Odyssey).

Titles of works

1. The English-language titles of compositions (books and other print works, songs and other audio works, films and other visual media works, paintings and other artworks, etc.) are given in title case, in which every word is given an initial capital except for certain less important words. The first and last words in an English-language title are always capitalized.
2. Capitalization in foreign-language titles varies, even over time within the same language; generally, retain the style of the original for modern works, and follow the usage in current English-language reliable sources for historical works. Many of these items should also be in italics, or enclosed in quotation marks.

Titles of people

1. In generic use, apply lower case to words such as president, king, and emperor (De Gaulle was a French president; Louis XVI was a French king; Three prime ministers attended the conference).
2. Directly juxtaposed with the person's name, such words begin with a capital letter (President Obama, not president Obama). Standard or commonly used names of an office are treated as proper names (David Cameron was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom; Hirohito was Emperor of Japan; Louis XVI was King of France). Royal styles are capitalized (Her Majesty; His Highness); exceptions may apply for particular offices.

Calendar items

1. Months, days of the week, and holidays start with a capital letter (June, Monday; the Fourth of July refers only to the US Independence Day – otherwise July 4 or 4 July).
2. Seasons are in lower case (her last summer; the winter solstice; spring fever), except in personifications or in proper names for periods or events (Old Man Winter; competed on the Spring Circuit).

Compass points

1. Do not capitalize directions such as north, or their related forms (We took the northern road), except where they are parts of proper names (Great North Road, Great Western Drive, South Pole).
2. Capitalize names of regions if they have attained proper-name status, including informal conventional names (Southern California; the Western Desert), and derived terms for people (e.g., a Southerner as someone from the Southern United States). Do not capitalize descriptive names for regions that have not attained the status of proper names, such as southern Poland.
3. Composite directions should be hyphenated, since the wiki adopts British English (South-East Asia; north-west).

Proper names versus generic terms

1. Capitalize names of particular institutions (the founding of the University of Delhi; the history of Stanford University) but not generic words for institutions (the high school is near the university). Do not capitalize the at the start of an institution's name, regardless of the institution's preferred style. There are rare exceptions, when a leading The is represented by a T in the organization's acronym: The International Cat Association (TICA).
2. Treat political or geographic units similarly: The city has a population of 55,000; The two towns merged to become the City of Smithville. Do not mimic the style of local newspapers which refer to their municipality as the City or The City; an exception is the City of London, referred to as the City in a context that already makes the subject clear, as distinct from London and Greater London. When in doubt, use the full name for accessibility reasons; users of screen readers for the blind cannot hear a difference between city and City.

Ligatures

1. Ligatures should be used in languages in which they are standard (hence Moreau's last words were clin d'œil is preferable to Moreau's last words were clin d'oeil) but not in English (encyclopedia or encyclopaedia, not encyclopædia), except in proper names (Æthelstan not Aethelstan).

Abbreviations

1. Abbreviations are shortened forms of words or phrases. In strict analysis, they are distinct from contractions, which use an apostrophe (e.g., won't), and initialisms. An initialism is formed from some or all of the initial letters of words in a phrase. Below, references to abbreviations should be taken to include acronyms, and the term acronym to apply also to initialisms.

Write out both the full version and the abbreviation at first occurrence

1. When an abbreviation will be used in an article, first introduce it using the full expression.
2. Do not use capitals in the full version merely because capitals are used in the abbreviation: an early Local Area Network (LAN).
3. Except in special circumstances, common abbreviations (such as PhD, DNA, USSR) need not be expanded even on first use.

Plural forms

1. Pluralize acronyms by adding -s or -es: Three CD-ROMs and two BIOSes were released. (Do not use apostrophes to form plurals: Three CD-ROM's and two BIOS's were released.)

Punctuation and spacing

1. An abbreviation may or may not be terminated with a full point (also called a period or stop). A consistent style should be maintained within an article. North American usage is typically to end all abbreviations with a period/point (Dr. Smith of 42 Drummond St.) but in common British and Australian usage, no period/point is used if the abbreviation (contraction) ends in the last letter of the unabbreviated form (Dr Smith of 42 Drummond St) unless confusion could result. This is also common practice in scientific writing. Regardless of punctuation, words that are abbreviated to more than one letter are spaced (op. cit. not op.cit. or opcit). There are some exceptions: PhD (see above) for "Philosophiae Doctor"; BVetMed for "Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine". In most situations, the wiki uses no such punctuation inside acronyms and initialisms: GDP, not G.D.P..

US and U.S.

1. While, in principle, either US or U.S. may be used (with internal consistency) to abbreviate "United States" in any given article, the use or non-use of periods (full stops) should also be consistent with other country abbreviations in the same article (thus the US, UK, and USSR, not the U.S., UK, and USSR). In longer abbreviations (three letters or more) that incorporate the country's initials (USN, USAID), do not use periods. When the United States is mentioned with one or more other countries in the same sentence, U.S. or US may be too informal, especially at the first mention or as a noun instead of an adjective (France and the United States, not France and the US). Do not use the spaced U. S. or the archaic U.S. of A., except when quoting; and do not use U.S.A. or USA except in a quotation, as part of a proper name (Team USA), or in certain technical or formal uses (e.g., the ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 codes and FIFA country codes).

Circa

1. To indicate approximately, the abbreviation c. (followed by a space and not italicized) is preferred over circa, ca., or approx. Use of the circa template is also strongly recommended.

Do not use unwarranted abbreviations

1. Avoid abbreviations when they might confuse the reader, interrupt the flow, or appear informal. For example:
   1. Do not use approx. for approximate(ly) except in an infobox or table (in which case use it at first occurrence: approx.).
   2. Do not use the legalism Smith J for Justice Smith.

Do not invent abbreviations or acronyms

1. Generally avoid devising new abbreviations, especially acronyms. For example, World Union of Billiards is good as a translation of Union Mondiale de Billard, but neither it nor the reduction WUB is used by the organization or by independent sources; use the original name and its official abbreviation, UMB.
2. If it is necessary to abbreviate in a tight space, such as a column header in a table, use widely recognized abbreviations. For example, for New Zealand gross national product, use NZ and GNP, with a link if the term has not already been written out in the article: NZ GNP. Do not make up initialisms such as NZGNP.

HTML tags and templates for abbreviations

1. Either the <abbr> element or the abbr template can be used for abbreviations and acronyms: <abbr title="World Health Organization">WHO</abbr> or {{abbr|WHO|World Health Organization}} will generate WHO; hovering over the rendered text causes a tooltip of the long form to pop up.

Ampersand

1. In normal text and headings, use and instead of the ampersand (&): January 1 and 2, not January 1 & 2. But retain an ampersand when it is a legitimate part of the style of a proper noun, such as in Up & Down or AT&T. Elsewhere, ampersands may be used with consistency and discretion where space is extremely limited (e.g., tables and infoboxes). Quotations may be cautiously modified, especially for consistency where different editions are quoted, as modern editions of old texts routinely replace ampersands with and (just as they replace other disused glyphs, ligatures, and abbreviations). Another frequent permissible but not required use is in short bibliographic references to works by multiple authors, e.g.: ...a series of French and Belgian papers (Lubbers & Scheepers, 2002; Van Hiel & Mervielde, 2002; Swyngedouw & Giles, 2007; Van Hiel, 2012).

Italics

Italics are used for emphasis, rather than boldface or capitals. However, overuse diminishes its effect; consider rewriting instead then.

Use <em>...</em> or em for emphasis. This allows user style sheets to handle emphasis in a customized way, and helps reusers and translators.

Titles

Use italics for the titles of works (such as books, films, television series, named exhibitions, computer games, music albums, and paintings). The titles of articles, chapters, songs, episodes, research papers and other short works instead take double quotation marks. Italics are not used for major religious works (the Bible, the Quran, the Talmud). Many of these titles should also be in title case.

Use italics when mentioning a word or character or a string of words up to one sentence (the term panning is derived from panorama; the most common letter in English is e). When a whole sentence is mentioned, double quotation marks may be used instead, with consistency (The preposition in She sat on the chair is on; or The preposition in "She sat on the chair" is "on"). Quotation marks may also be used for shorter material to avoid confusion, such as when italics are already being heavily used in the page for some other purpose (e.g., many non-English words and phrases). Mentioning (to discuss grammar, wording, punctuation, etc.) is different from quoting (in which something is usually expressed on behalf of a quoted source). Quotation is done with quotation marks, never italics, nor both at once.

A closely related use of italics is when introducing or distinguishing terms: The natural numbers are the integers greater than 0.

Foreign words

Use italics for phrases in other languages and for isolated foreign words that are not common in everyday English. However, proper names (such as place names) in other languages are not usually italicized, nor are terms in non-Latin scripts.

Quotations in italics

Do not use italics for quotations. Instead, use quotation marks for short quotations and block quoting for long ones.

Italics within quotations

Use italics within quotations to reproduce emphasis that exists in the source material. If it is not clear that the source already included italics (or some other styling) for emphasis, add the editorial note [emphasis in original] after the quotation.

If adding emphasis that was not in the original, add the editorial note [emphasis added] after the quotation.

"Now cracks a noble heart. Good night sweet prince: And flights of angels sing thee to thy rest." [emphasis added]

Effect on nearby punctuation

Italicize only the elements of the sentence affected by the emphasis. Do not italicize surrounding punctuation.

Incorrect: What are we to make of that? (The question mark applies to the whole sentence, not just to the emphasized that, so it should not be italicized.)

Correct: What are we to make of that?

Correct: Four of Patrick White's most famous novels are A Fringe of Leaves, The Aunt's Story, Voss, and The Tree of Man. (The commas, the period, and the word and are not italicized.)

Quotations

Brief quotations of copyrighted text may be used to illustrate a point, establish context, or attribute a point of view or idea. While quotations are an indispensable part of Wikipedia, try not to overuse them. Using too many quotes is incompatible with an encyclopedic writing style and may be a copyright infringement. It is generally recommended that content be written in wiki editors' own words. Consider paraphrasing quotations into plain and concise text when appropriate (while being aware that close paraphrasing can still violate copyright).

Original wording

Quotations must be verifiably attributed, and the wording of the quoted text should be faithfully reproduced. This is referred to as the principle of minimal change. Where there is good reason to change the wording, bracket the changed text; for example, "Ocyrhoe told him his fate" might be quoted as "Ocyrhoe told [her father] his fate". If there is a significant error in the original, follow it with the template sic (producing [sic] ) to show that the error was not made by the ClockworkWiki. However, insignificant spelling and typographic errors should simply be silently corrected (for example, correct basicly to basically).

Use ellipses to indicate omissions from quoted text. Legitimate omissions include extraneous, irrelevant, or parenthetical words, and unintelligible speech (umm and hmm). Do not omit text where doing so would remove important context or alter the meaning of the text. When a vulgarity or obscenity is quoted, it should appear exactly as it does in the cited source; Wikipedians should never bowdlerize words by replacing letters with dashes, asterisks, or other symbols, except when faithfully reproducing quoted text that did so. In carrying over such an alteration from a quoted source, [sic] or the sic template may be used to indicate that the transcription is exact.

In direct quotations, retain dialectal and archaic spellings, including capitalization (but not archaic glyphs and ligatures, as detailed below).

Point of view

Quotation should be used, with attribution, to present emotive opinions that cannot be expressed in Wikipedia's own voice, but never to present cultural norms as simply opinional:

Acceptable: Siskel and Ebert called the film "unforgettable".

Unacceptable: The site is considered "sacred" by the religion's scriptures.

Concise opinions that are not overly emotive can often be reported with attribution instead of direct quotation. Use of quotation marks around simple descriptive terms can imply something doubtful regarding the material being quoted; sarcasm or weasel words such as supposedly or so-called, might be inferred.

Permissible: Siskel and Ebert called the film interesting.

Unnecessary and may imply doubt: Siskel and Ebert called the film "interesting".

Should be quoted: Siskel and Ebert called the film "interesting but heart-wrenching".

Typographic conformity

A quotation is not a facsimile and, in most cases, it is not a requirement that the original formatting be preserved. Formatting and other purely typographical elements of quoted text should be adapted to the ClockworkWiki's conventions without comment provided that doing so will not change or obscure meaning or intent of the text. These are alterations which make no difference when the text is read aloud, for example:

• Normalize dashes and hyphens: Use the style chosen for the article: unspaced em dash or spaced en dash.
• Convert apostrophes and quotation marks to the wiki's style:
  • These should be straight, not curly or slanted.
  • When quoting a quotation that itself contains a quotation, alternate between using double and single quotes for each quotation.
• When quoting text from non-English languages, the outer punctuation should follow the Manual of style for English quote marks. If there are nested quotations, follow the rules for correct punctuation in that language. If there are multiple styles for a language, the one used by the the wiki for that language is preferred unless the punctuation itself is under discussion. The cynical response "L'auteur aurait dû demander: « à quoi sert-il d'écrire ceci? » mais ne l'a pas fait" was all he wrote.
• Remove spaces before punctuation such as periods and colons.
• Generally preserve bold and italics, but most other styling should be altered. Underlining, spac ing within words, colors, ALL CAPS, small caps, etc. should generally be normalized to plain text. If it clearly indicates emphasis, use italic emphasis (em) or, in an already-italic passage, boldface (with strong). For titles of books, articles, poems, and so forth, use italics or quotation marks following the guidance for titles. Italics can also be added to mark up non-English terms (with the lang template), for an organism's scientific name, and to indicate a words-as-words usage.
• Expand an abbreviation (not already used in the content before the quotation) as a square-bracketed change, or explain it with the abbr template.
• Normalize archaic glyphs and ligatures in English that are unnecessary to the meaning. Examples include æ→ae, œ→oe, ſ→s, and þe→the.

However, national varieties should not be changed, as these may involve changes in vocabulary. For example, a quotation from a British source should retain British spelling, even in an article that otherwise uses American spelling. Numbers also usually should not be reformatted.

Direct quotation should not be used to preserve the formatting preferred by an external publisher (especially when the material would otherwise be unchanged), as this tends to have the effect of "scare-quoting":

Acceptable: The animal is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Unacceptable: The animal is listed as "Endangered" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Italics can be used to mark a particular usage as a term of art (a case of "words as words"), especially when it is unfamiliar or should not be reworded by a non-expert:

Permissible: The animal is listed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

When quoting a complete sentence, it is usually recommended to keep the first word capitalized. However, if the quoted passage has been integrated into the surrounding sentence (for example, with an introduction such as "X said that"), the original capital letter may be lower-cased.

LaVesque's report stated: "The equipment was selected for its low price. This is the primary reason for criticism of the program."

LaVesque's report said that "the equipment was selected for its low price".

The program was criticized primarily because "the equipment was selected for its low price", according to LaVesque.

It is not normally necessary to explicitly note changes in capitalization. However, for more precision, the altered letter may be put inside square brackets: "The" → "[t]he".

The program was criticized primarily because "[t]he equipment was selected for its low price", according to LaVesque.

Attribution

The reader must be able to determine the source of any quotation, at the very least via a footnote. The source must be named in article text if the quotation is an opinion. When attributing a quotation, avoid characterizing it in a biased manner.

Quotations within quotations

Be conservative when linking within quotations: link only to targets that correspond to the meaning clearly intended by the quote's author. Where possible, link from text outside of the quotation instead – either before it or soon after. (If quoting hypertext, add an editorial note, [link in original] or [link added], as appropriate, to avoid ambiguity as to whether the link was made by the original author.)

Block quotations

Format a long quote (more than about forty words or a few hundred characters, or consisting of more than one paragraph, regardless of length) as a block quotation, indented on both sides. Block quotations should be enclosed in blockquote (a wrapper for the <blockquote>...</blockquote> HTML element).

Do not enclose block quotations in quotation marks (and especially avoid large, decorative quotation marks; those provided by the cquote template have been disabled in mainspace). Block quotations using a colored background are also discouraged.

Use blockquote (or <blockquote> or any other template using it) only for actual quotations; indentation for other purposes is done differently.

It is conventional to precede a block quotation with an introductory sentence (or sentence fragment) and append the source citation to that line. Alternatively, the blockquote template provides parameters for attribution and citation which will appear below the quotation. This below-quotation attribution style is intended for famous quotations and is unusual in articles because it may strike an inappropriate tone. A quotation with no cited source should be flagged with quote without source, or deleted.

Pull quotes do not belong in Wikipedia articles. These are the news and magazine style of "pulling" material already in the article to reuse it in attention-grabbing decorative quotations. This unencyclopedic approach is a form of editorializing, produces out-of-context and undue emphasis, and may lead the reader to conclusions not supported in the material.

Foreign-language quotations

Quotations from foreign-language sources should appear with a translation into English, preferably a modern one. Quotations that are translations should be explicitly distinguished from those that are not. Indicate the original source of a translation (if it is available, and not first published here), and the original language (if that is not clear from the context).

If the original, untranslated text is available, provide a reference for it or include it, as appropriate.

When editors themselves translate foreign text into English, care must always be taken to include the original text, in italics (except for non-Latin-based writing systems), and to use actual and (if at all possible) common English words in the translation.

Punctuation

Apostrophes

Use straight apostrophes ('), not curly apostrophes (’). Do not use accent marks or backticks (`) as apostrophes.

Templates such as ' and 's are helpful when an apostrophe (or single quote) appears at the beginning or end of text in italics or bold, because italics and bold are themselves indicated by sequences of single quotes. Example: Dynasty's first season (markup: Dynasty's first season).

Letters resembling apostrophes should be represented by those templates or by their Unicode values.

Quotation marks

In the material below, the term "quotation" includes conventional uses of quotation marks such as for titles of songs, chapters, episodes, and so on. Quotation marks are also used in other contexts, such as in cultivar names.

Quotation characters

Use "straight" quotation marks, not “curly” ones. (For single apostrophe quotes: 'straight', not ‘curly’.)

Do not use accent marks, backticks (`text´), low-high („ “) or guillemet (« ») marks as quotation marks (except when such marks are internal to quoted non-English text). The symbols ′ and ″ seen in edit window dropdowns are prime and double-prime; these are used to indicate subdivisions of the degree, but not as apostrophes or quote marks.

Quotation marks and apostrophes in imported material should be changed if necessary.

Double or single

Most quotations take double quotation marks (Bob said: "Jim ate the apple.").

For a quotation within a quotation

For a quotation within a quotation, use single quotes:

Bob asked: "Did Jim say 'I ate the apple' before he left?"

For deeper nesting, alternate between single and double quotes:

He said, "That book asserts, 'Confucius said "Everything has beauty, but not everyone sees it."'"

For quote marks in immediate succession, add a sliver of space by using " ', ' ", or (as in the example just given) " ' ":

He announced, "The answer was 'Yes!'" Markup: He announced, "The answer was 'Yes!{{' "}}

He announced, "The answer was 'Yes!'" (simply jamming ' and " together)

Article openings

In the bolded text typically appearing at the opening of an article:

Any quotation marks that are part of the title should be in bold just like the rest of the title ("A" Is for Alibi is a mystery novel ...).

Quotation marks not part of the article title should not be bolded ("Jabberwocky" is a nonsense poem ...; William Frederick "Buffalo Bill" Cody was an American soldier, bison hunter, and showman ...).

Punctuation before quotations

If a non-quoted but otherwise identical construction would work grammatically without a comma, using a comma before a quotation embedded within a sentence is optional:

The report stated "There was a 45% reduction in transmission rate." (Cf. the non-quotation The report stated there was a 45% reduction in transmission rate.)

The report stated, "There was a 45% reduction in transmission rate."

The comma-free approach is often used with partial quotations:

The report observed "a 45% reduction in transmission rate".

Commas are usually used with interrupted quotations:

"Life", Anaïs Nin wrote, "shrinks or expands in proportion to one's courage."

A comma is required when it would be present in the same construction if none of the material were a quotation:

In Margaret Mead's view, "we must recognize the whole gamut of human potentialities" to enrich our culture.

Do not insert a comma if it would confuse or alter the meaning:

Caitlyn Jenner expressed concerns about children "who are coming to terms with being true to who they are". (Accurate quote of a statement about some children – specifically those children "who are coming to terms ...")

Caitlyn Jenner expressed concerns about children, "who are coming to terms with being true to who they are". (Changes the meaning to imply Jenner was expressing concern about all children, while separately observing that children, in general, "are coming to terms ...")

It is clearer to use a colon to introduce a quotation if it forms a complete sentence, and this should always be done for multi-sentence quotations:

The report stated: "There was a 45% reduction in transmission rate."

Albert Einstein wrote: "Logic will get you from A to B. Imagination will take you everywhere."

No additional punctuation is necessary for an explicit words-as-words scenario:

The message was unintelligible except for the fragments "help soon" and "how much longer before".

Names and titles

Quotation marks should be used for the following names and titles:

• Articles and chapters (books and periodicals italicized)
• Sections of musical pieces (pieces italicized)
• Individual strips from comics and webcomics (comics italicized)
• Poems (long or epic poems italicized)
• Songs (albums, song cycles, operas, operettas, and oratorios italicized)
• Individual episodes of television and radio series and serials (series title italicized)

For example: The song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" from the album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band by the band the Beatles.

Do not use quotation marks or italics for:

• Ancient writings
• Concert tours
• Locations
• Myths and epics
• Prayers

Many, but not all, of the above items should also be in title case.

Punctuation inside or outside

On the ClockworkWiki, use the "logical quotation" style in all articles, regardless of the variety of English in which they are written. Include terminal punctuation within the quotation marks only if it was present in the original material, and otherwise place it after the closing quotation mark. For the most part, this means treating periods and commas in the same way as question marks: keep them inside the quotation marks if they apply only to the quoted material and outside if they apply to the whole sentence. Examples are given below.

Correct: Did Darla say, "Here I am"? (question mark applies to whole sentence)

Incorrect: Did Darla say, "Here I am?" (incorrect to apply the question mark to the quotation)

Correct: Darla said, "Where am I?" (question mark applies to quoted material only)

If the quotation is a single word or a sentence fragment, place the terminal punctuation outside the closing quotation mark. When quoting a full sentence, the end of which coincides with the end of the sentence containing it, place terminal punctuation inside the closing quotation mark.

Marlin needed, he said, "to find Nemo".

Marlin said: "I need to find Nemo."

If the quoted sentence has been broken up with an editorial insertion, still include the terminal punctuation inside the closing quotation mark.

"I need", said Marlin, "to find Nemo."

If the quoted sentence is followed by a clause that should be preceded by a comma, omit the full stop (period) – but other terminal punctuation, such as a question mark or exclamation mark, may be retained.

Dory said, "Yes, I can read", which gave Marlin an idea.

Dory said, "Yes, I can read!", which gave Marlin an idea.

If the quoted sentence is followed by a clause identifying the speaker, use a comma outside the quotation mark instead of a full stop inside it, but retain any other terminal punctuation, such as question marks.

"Why are you sleeping?", asked Darla.

"Fish are friends, not food", said Bruce.

Do not follow quoted words or fragments with commas inside the quotation marks, except where a longer quotation has been broken up and the comma is part of the full quotation.

Correct: "Why", asked Darla, "are you sleeping?"

Incorrect: "Why," asked Darla, "are you sleeping?"

Correct: "Fish are friends," said Bruce, "not food."

Brackets and parentheses

This section applies to both round brackets ( ), often called parentheses, and square brackets [ ].

If a sentence contains a bracketed phrase, place the sentence punctuation outside the brackets (as shown here). However, where one or more sentences are wholly inside brackets, place their punctuation inside the brackets. There should be no space next to the inner side of a bracket. An opening bracket should usually be preceded by a space. This may not be the case if it is preceded by an opening quotation mark, another opening bracket, or a portion of a word:

He rose to address the meeting: "(Ahem) ... Ladies and gentlemen, welcome!"

Only the royal characters in the play ([Prince] Hamlet and his family) habitually speak in blank verse.

We journeyed on the Inter[continental].

Most people are right-handed. (Some people are left-handed, but that does not make right-handed people "better" than left-handed people.)

There should be a space after a closing bracket, except where a punctuation mark follows (though a spaced dash would still be spaced after a closing bracket) and in unusual cases similar to those listed for opening brackets.

Avoid adjacent sets of brackets. Either put the parenthetic phrases in one set separated by commas, or rewrite:

Avoid: Nikifor Grigoriev (c. 1885–1919) (also known as Matviy Hryhoriyiv) was a Ukrainian insurgent leader.

Better: Nikifor Grigoriev (c. 1885–1919, also known as Matviy Hryhoriyiv) was a Ukrainian insurgent leader.

Better: Nikifor Grigoriev (c. 1885–1919) was a Ukrainian insurgent leader. He was also known as Matviy Hryhoriyiv.

Square brackets are used to indicate editorial replacements and insertions within quotations, though this should never alter the intended meaning. They serve three main purposes:

To clarify: She attended [secondary] school, where this was the intended meaning, but the type of school was unstated in the original sentence.

To reduce the size of a quotation: X contains Y, and under certain circumstances, X may contain Z as well may be reduced to X contains Y [and sometimes Z]. When an ellipsis (...) is used to indicate that material is removed from a direct quotation, it should not normally be bracketed.

To make the grammar work: Referring to someone's statement "I hate to do laundry", one could properly write She "hate[s] to do laundry".

If a sentence includes subsidiary material enclosed in square or round brackets, it must still carry terminal punctuation after those brackets, regardless of any punctuation within the brackets. She refused all requests (except for basics such as food, medicine, etc.).

However, if the entire sentence is within brackets, the closing punctuation falls within the brackets. (This sentence is an example.)

Brackets and linking

Square brackets inside of links must be escaped:

He said, "[[John Doe

He said, "John [Doe]] answered."

[//example.com On the first day &91;&91;etc.]]]

On the first day [etc.]

The <nowiki> markup can also be used: <nowiki>[Doe]</nowiki> or <nowiki>[etc.]</nowiki>.

If a URL itself contains square brackets, the wiki-text should use the URL-encoded form https://example.com/foo.php?query=%5Bxxx%5Dyyy, rather than ...query=&91;xxx&93;yyy. This will avoid truncation of the link after xxx.

Ellipses

Use an ellipsis (plural ellipses) if material is omitted in the course of a quotation, unless square brackets are used to gloss the quotation (see § Brackets and parentheses, and the points below).

Wikipedia's style for an ellipsis is three unspaced dots (...); do not use the precomposed ellipsis character (…) or three dots separated by spaces (. . .)

Generally, use a non-breaking space before an ellipsis, and a regular space after it: "Alpha, Bravo,nbsp... Zulu"

But where an ellipsis is immediately followed by any of . ? ! : ; , ) ] } or by a closing quotation mark (single or double), use a non-breaking space before the ellipsis, and no space after it:

Jones wrote, "These stories amaze me. The facts suffer so frightfullynbsp..."

"But what of the other cities? London, Parisnbsp...?" (Place terminal punctuation after an ellipsis only if it is textually important, as is often the case with exclamation marks and question marks but rarely with periods.)

Or, if the ellipsis immediately follows a quotation mark, use no space before the ellipsis, and a non-breaking space after it:

He continued to pursue Smith ("...nbspto the ends of the earth", he had sworn) until his own death.

Pause or suspension of speech

Three dots are occasionally used to represent a pause in or suspense of speech, in which case the punctuation is retained in its original form: Virginia's startled reply was "Could he ...? No, I can't believe it!". When it indicates an incomplete word, no space is used between the word fragment(s) and the ellipsis: The garbled transmission ended with "We are stranded near San L...o", interpreted as a reference to either San Leandro or San Lorenzo.

With square brackets

Occasionally, square brackets are placed around an ellipsis to make clear that it isn't original to the material being quoted, for example if the quoted passage itself contains an ellipsis (She retorted: "How do I feel? How do you think I ... This is too much! [...] Take me home!").

Commas

A pair of commas can bracket an appositive (as can brackets or dashes, though with greater interruption of the sentence). For example:

Correct: John Smith, Janet Cooper's son, is a well-known playwright.

Correct: Janet Cooper's son John Smith is a well-known playwright. (when Janet has multiple sons)

Correct: Janet Cooper's son, John Smith, is a well-known playwright. (when Janet has only one son)

Always use a pair of commas for this, unless another punctuation mark takes the place of the second comma:

Incorrect: The newest member, John Smith was blunt.

Correct: Blunt comments came from the newest member, John Smith.

Correct: The newest member, John Smith – himself a retired teacher – was blunt.

Don't let other punctuation distract you from the need for a comma, especially when the comma collides with a bracket or parenthesis:

Correct: Burke and Wills, fed by locals (on beans, fish, and ngardu), survived for a few months.

Incorrect: Burke and Wills, fed by locals (on beans, fish, and ngardu) survived for a few months.

Modern writing uses fewer commas; there are usually ways to simplify a sentence so that fewer are needed.

Clear: Schubert's heroes included Mozart, Beethoven, and Joseph and Michael Haydn.

Awkward: Mozart was, along with the Haydns, both Joseph and Michael, and also Beethoven, one of Schubert's heroes.

Serial commas

A serial comma (sometimes also called an Oxford comma or Harvard comma) is a comma used immediately before a conjunction (and, or, nor) in a list of three or more items.

ham, chips, and eggs – serial comma

ham, chips and eggs – no serial comma

Editors may use either convention so long as each article is internally consistent. Serial commas are more helpful the more complex the material, such as a list with multi-word items (especially if one contains its own and), or a series of probably unfamiliar terms.

However, there are cases in which either omitting or including the serial comma results in ambiguity:

The author thanked her friends, Sinéad O'Connor and Bob Marley – which may list either four or more people (the friends and the two people named), or two people (O'Connor and Marley, who are the friends).

The author thanked a friend, Sinéad O'Connor, and Bob Marley – which may list either two people (O'Connor, who is the friend, and Marley), or three people (the first being the friend, the second O'Connor, and the third Marley).

In such cases of ambiguity, clarify one of three ways:

1. Add or remove the serial comma.
2. Use separate sentences, bullet lists, or some other structural change to clarify.
3. Recast the sentence ("friends" case):
   1. To list two people: The author thanked her friends Sinéad O'Connor and Bob Marley.
   2. Clearer: The author thanked two friends – Sinéad O'Connor and Bob Marley.
   3. To list several people:
      1. The author thanked Sinéad O'Connor, Bob Marley and her friends, or
      2. The author thanked Sinéad O'Connor, Bob Marley, and her friends.
      3. But not: The author thanked Bob Marley, Sinéad O'Connor[,] and her friends – introduces ambiguity about her.
4. Recast the sentence ("friend" case):
   1. To list two people: The author thanked Bob Marley and her friend, Sinéad O'Connor.
   2. Or be more specific when possible (the commas here set off non-restrictive appositives): The author thanked her childhood friend, Sinéad O'Connor, and her mentor, Bob Marley.
   3. To list three people: The author thanked Bob Marley, Sinéad O'Connor, and a friend.
   4. Clarity with gender-specific terms such as mother can be tricky; The author thanked her mother, Kim Thayil, and Sinéad O'Connor is unclear because readers may not know Kim Thayil is male and wouldn't be the same person as the mother.
   5. Clearer: The author thanked Kim Thayil, Sinéad O'Connor, and her own mother or The author thanked her mother and musicians Kim Thayil and Sinéad O'Connor .

Colons

A colon (:) introduces something which demonstrates, explains, or modifies what has come before, or is a list of items that has just been introduced. The items in such a list may be separated by commas; or, if they are more complex and perhaps themselves contain commas, the items should be separated by semicolons or arranged in a bulleted list.

We visited several tourist attractions: the Leaning Tower of Pisa, which I thought could fall at any moment; the Bridge of Sighs; the supposed birthplace of Petrarch, or at least the first known house in which he lived; and so many more.

In most cases a colon works best with a complete grammatical sentence before it. When what follows the colon is also a complete sentence, start it with a capital letter, but otherwise do not capitalize after a colon except where doing so is needed for another reason, as for a proper name. Except in technical usage (a 3:1 ratio), no sentence should contain multiple colons, no space precedes a colon, and a space (but never a hyphen or dash) follows a colon.

Semicolons

A semicolon (;) is sometimes an alternative to a full stop (period), enabling related material to be kept in the same sentence; it marks a more decisive division in a sentence than a comma. If the semicolon separates clauses, normally each clause must be independent (meaning that it could stand on its own as a sentence). In many cases, only a comma or only a semicolon will be correct in a given sentence.

Correct: Though he had been here before, I did not recognize him.

Incorrect: Though he had been here before; I did not recognize him.

Above, "Though he had been here before" cannot stand on its own as a sentence, and therefore is not an independent clause.

Correct: Oranges are an acidic fruit; bananas are classified as alkaline.

Incorrect: Oranges are an acidic fruit, bananas are classified as alkaline.

This incorrect use of a comma between two independent clauses is known as a comma splice; however, in certain kinds of cases a comma may be used where a semicolon would seem to be called for:

Accepted: "Life is short, art is long." (two brief clauses in an aphorism; see Ars longa, vita brevis)

Accepted: "I have studied it, you have not." (reporting brisk conversation, such as this reply of Newton's)

A sentence may contain several semicolons, especially when the clauses are parallel in construction and meaning; multiple unrelated semicolons are often signs that the sentence should be divided into shorter sentences or otherwise refashioned.

Unwieldy: Oranges are an acidic fruit; bananas are classified as alkaline; pears are close to neutral; these distinctions are rarely discussed.

One better way: Oranges are an acidic fruit, bananas are alkaline, and pears are close to neutral; these distinctions are rarely discussed.

Semicolons are used in addition to commas to separate items in a listing, when commas alone would result in confusion.

Confusing: Sales offices are located in Boston, Massachusetts, San Francisco, California, Singapore, and Millbank, London, England.

Clear: Sales offices are located in Boston, Massachusetts; San Francisco, California; Singapore; and Millbank, London, England.

Semicolon before "however"

The meaning of a sentence containing a trailing clause that starts with the word however depends on the punctuation preceding that word. A common error is to use the wrong punctuation, thereby changing the meaning to one not intended.

When the word however is an adverb meaning "nevertheless", it should be preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma.

Example: It was obvious they could not convert these people; however, they tried.

Meaning: It was obvious they could not convert these people; nevertheless, they tried.

When the word however is a conjunction meaning "in whatever manner", or "regardless of how", it may be preceded by a comma but not by a semicolon, and should not be followed by punctuation.

Example: It was obvious they could not convert these people, however they tried.

Meaning: It was obvious they could not convert these people, regardless of how they tried.

In the first case, the clause that starts with "however" cannot be swapped with the first clause; in the second case this can be done without change of meaning: However they tried, it was obvious they could not convert these people.

Meaning: Regardless of how they tried, it was obvious they could not convert these people.

If the two clauses cannot be swapped, a semicolon is required.

A sentence or clause can also contain the word however in the middle, if it is an adverb meaning "although" that could have been placed at the beginning but does not start a new clause in mid-sentence. In this use, the word may be enclosed between commas.

Example: He did not know, however, that the venue had been changed at the last minute.

Meaning: However, he did not know that the venue had been changed at the last minute.

Hyphens

Hyphens (-) indicate conjunction. There are three main uses:

1. In hyphenated personal names: John Lennard-Jones.
2. To link prefixes with their main terms in certain constructions (quasi-scientific, pseudo-Apollodorus, ultra-nationalistic).
   1. A hyphen may be used to distinguish between homographs (re-dress means dress again, but redress means remedy or set right).
   2. There is a clear trend to join both elements in all varieties of English (subsection, nonlinear). Hyphenation clarifies when the letters brought into contact are the same (non-negotiable, sub-basement) or are vowels (pre-industrial), or where a word is uncommon (co-proposed, re-target) or may be misread (sub-era, not subera). Some words of these sorts are nevertheless common without the hyphen (e.g., cooperation is more frequently attested than co-operation in contemporary English).[f]
   3. To link related terms in compound modifiers:[l]
   4. Hyphens can aid ease of reading (that is, they can be ease-of-reading aids) and are particularly useful in long noun phrases: gas-phase reaction dynamics. But never insert a hyphen into a proper name (Middle Eastern cuisine, not Middle-Eastern cuisine).
      1. A man eating fish
      2. A man-eating fish
   5. A hyphen can help to disambiguate (some short-story writers are quite tall; a government-monitoring program is a program that monitors the government, whereas a government monitoring program is a government program that monitors).
   6. Compounds that are hyphenated when used attributively (adjectives before the nouns they qualify: a light-blue handbag, a 34-year-old woman) or substantively (as a noun: she is a 34-year-old) are usually not hyphenated when used predicatively (descriptive phrase separated from the noun: the handbag was light blue, the woman is 34 years old). Where there would otherwise be a loss of clarity, however, a hyphen may be used in the predicative form as well (hand-fed turkeys, the turkeys were hand-fed). Awkward attributive hyphenation can sometimes be avoided with a simple rewording: Hawaiian-native culture → native Hawaiian culture.
   7. Avoid using a hyphen after a standard -ly adverb (a newly available home, a wholly owned subsidiary) unless part of a larger compound (a slowly-but-surely strategy). In rare cases, a hyphen can improve clarity if a rewritten alternative is awkward, but rewording is usually preferable: The idea was clearly stated enough can be disambiguated as The idea clearly was stated often enough or The idea was stated with enough clarity.
   8. A few words ending in -ly function as both adjectives and adverbs (a kindly-looking teacher; a kindly provided facility). Some such dual-purpose words (like early, only, northerly) are not standard -ly adverbs, because they are not formed by addition of -ly to an independent current-English adjective. These need careful treatment: Early flowering plants appeared around 130 million years ago, but Early-flowering plants risk damage from winter frosts; only child actors (no adult actors) but only-child actors (actors without siblings).
   9. A hyphen is normally used when the adverb well precedes a participle used attributively (a well-meaning gesture; but normally a very well managed firm, because well itself is modified) and even predicatively, if well is necessary to, or alters, the sense of the adjective rather than simply intensifying it (the gesture was well-meaning, the child was well-behaved, but the floor was well polished).
   10. In some cases, such as diode–transistor logic, the independent status of the linked elements requires an en dash instead of a hyphen.

Hanging hyphen

Use a hanging hyphen when two compound modifiers are separated (two- and three-digit numbers; a ten-car or -truck convoy; sloping right- or leftward).

Values and units used as compound modifiers are hyphenated only where the unit is given as a whole word; when using the unit symbol, separate it from the number with a non-breaking space (&nbsp;).

Incorrect: 9-mm gap

Correct: 9 mm gap (markup: 9&nbsp;mm gap)

Incorrect: 9 millimetre gap

Correct: 9-millimetre gap

Correct: 12-hour shift

Correct: 12 h shift (markup: 12&nbsp;h shift)

Multi-word hyphenated items

It is often possible to avoid multi-word hyphenated modifiers by rewording (a four-CD soundtrack album may be easier to read as a soundtrack album of four CDs). This is particularly important where converted units are involved (the 6-hectare-limit (14.8-acre-limit) rule might be possible as the rule imposing a limit of six hectares (14.8 acres), and the ungainly 4.9-mile (7.9 km) -long tributary as simply 4.9-mile (7.9 km) tributary).

For optional hyphenation of compound points of the compass such as southwest/south-west, see § Compass points.

Do not use a capital letter after a hyphen except for a proper name: Graeco-Roman and Mediterranean-style, but not Gandhi-Like. In titles of published works, follow the capitalization rule for each part independently (resulting in, e.g., The Out-of-Towners), unless reliable sources consistently do otherwise in a particular case (The History of Middle-earth).

Hyphenation rules in other languages may be different. Thus, in French a place name such as Trois-Rivières ("Three Rivers") is hyphenated, when it would not be in English. Follow reliable sources in such cases.

Spacing

A hyphen is never followed or preceded by a space, except when hanging (see above) or when used to display parts of words independently, such as the prefix sub- and the suffix -less.

Image filenames and redirects

Image filenames are not part of the encyclopedic content; they are tools. They are most useful if they can be readily typed, so they always use hyphens instead of dashes. Similarly, article titles with dashes should also have a corresponding redirect from a copy of the title with hyphens: for example, Michelson-Morley experiment redirects to Michelson–Morley experiment.

Non-breaking

A non-breaking hyphen (nbhyph) will not be used as a point of line-wrap.

Soft hyphens

Use soft hyphens to mark locations where a word will be broken and hyphenated if necessary at the end of a line of text, usually in very long words or narrow spaces (such as captions, narrow table columns, or text adjacent to a very wide image), for example: Penn|syl|va|nia and Mass|a|chu|setts style themselves com|mon|wealths.|shy| Penn|syl|va|nia and Mass|a|chu|setts style themselves com|mon|wealths.. Use sparingly to avoid making wikitext difficult to read and edit. For more information, see Help:Line-break handling.

Encoding

The hyphen is represented by the ASCII/UNICODE HYPHEN-MINUS character, which is entered by the hyphen or minus key on all standard keyboards. Do not use the UNICODE HYPHEN character.

Hyphenation involves many subtleties that cannot be covered here; the rules and examples presented above illustrate the broad principles.

Dashes

Two forms of dash are used: en dash (–) and em dash (—). To enter them, click on them in the CharInsert toolbar, or enter them manually as:

    – or —
    {{t|endash}} or {{t|emdash}}

Do not use a double hyphen (--) to stand in for a dash.

In article titles

In article titles, do not use a hyphen (-) as a substitute for an en dash, for example in eye–hand span (since eye does not modify hand). Nonetheless, to aid searching and linking, provide a redirect with hyphens replacing the en dash(es), as in eye-hand span. Similarly, provide category redirects for categories containing dashes.

Punctuating a sentence (em or en dashes)

Dashes are often used to mark divisions within a sentence: in pairs (parenthetical dashes, instead of parentheses or pairs of commas); or singly (perhaps instead of a colon). They may also indicate an abrupt stop or interruption, in reporting quoted speech. In all these cases, use either unspaced em dashes or spaced en dashes, with consistency in any one article:

An em dash is always unspaced (without a space on either side):

Another "planet" was detected—but it was later found to be a moon of Saturn.

An en dash is spaced (with a space on each side) when used as sentence punctuation:

Another "planet" was detected – but it was later found to be a moon of Saturn.

Ideally, use a non-breaking space before the en dash, which prevents the en dash from occurring at the beginning of a line (markup: the spaced ndash or snd templates, or use the HTML character entity &nbsp;):

Another "planet" was detectedsndbut it was later found to be a moon of Saturn.

But do not insert a non-breaking or other space where the en dash should be unspaced (see § Other uses (en dash only)).

Dashes can clarify the sentence structure when there are already commas or parentheses, or both.

The book summarizes works of some major philosophers in chronological order: Descartes, Locke, Hume – but not his Treatise (deemed too complex for the target audience) – and Kant.

Use dashes sparingly. More than two in a single sentence makes the structure unclear; it takes time for the reader to see which dashes, if any, form a pair.

The birds – at least the ones Darwin collected – had red and blue feathers.

"We have run aground at – ", was the final, incomplete message received from the ship.

Avoid: First – at a marshy site leveled with landfill – came the workshop – then administrative and other buildings.

Better: First – at a marshy site leveled with landfill – came the workshop; administrative and other buildings were erected later.

In ranges that might otherwise be expressed with to or through

This section is about ranges of numbers, dates, or times. For other ranges, such as ranges of physical locations, see § In compounds when the connection might otherwise be expressed with to, versus, and, or between.

For ranges between numbers, dates, or times, use an en dash:

pp. 7–19; 64–75%; Henry VIII reigned 1509–1547[7]

Do not change hyphens to dashes in filenames, URLs, or templates, even if a range is embedded in them.

Do not mix en dashes with between or from.

450–500 people

between 450 and 500 people, not between 450–500 people

from 450 to 500 people, not from 450–500 people

from 1961 to 1964, not from 1961–1964

between the 1961–1962 and 1967–1968 seasons, ticket sales dropped substantially (or between the 1961–62 and 1967–68 seasons)

The en dash in a range is always unspaced, except when either or both elements of the range include at least one space, hyphen, or en dash; in such cases, snd between them will provide the proper formatting.

July 23, 1790 – December 1, 1791 (not July 23, 1790–December 1, 1791)

14 May – 2 August 2011 (not 14 May–2 August 2011)

1–17 September; February–October 2009; 1492 – 7 April 1556

Christmas Day – New Year's Eve; Christmas 2001 – Easter 2002; 10:30 pm Tuesday – 1:25 am Wednesday; 6:00 p.m. – 9:30 p.m. (but 6:00–9:30 p.m.)

wavelengths in the range 28 mm – 17 m.

pages 5-7 – 5-9

If negative values are involved, an unspaced en dash might be confusing:

−10 to 10, not −10–10 (though −10 – 10 might work in a table consistently formatted with x–y constructions)

In compounds when the connection might otherwise be expressed with to, versus, and, or between

Here, the relationship is thought of as parallel, symmetric, equal, oppositional, or at least involving separate or independent elements. The components may be nouns, adjectives, verbs, or any other independent part of speech. Often, if the components are reversed there would be little change of meaning.

Generally, use a hyphen in compounded proper names of single entities.

An en dash between separate nations; for people and things identifying with multiple nationalities, use a hyphen when applied as an adjective or a space as a noun.

Japanese–American trade; but a family of Japanese-American traders or a family of Japanese Americans

an Italian–Swiss border crossing; but an Italian-Swiss newspaper for Italian-speaking Swiss

France–Britain rivalry; French–British rivalry

Wrong: Franco–British rivalry; Franco- is a combining form, not an independent word, so use a hyphen: Franco-British rivalry

Wrong: Austria–Hungary; the hyphenated Austria-Hungary was a single jurisdiction during its 1867–1918 existence

A slash or some other alternative may occasionally be better to express a ratio, especially in technical contexts (see § Slashes).

the protein–fat ratio; the protein/fat ratio; the protein-to-fat ratio

Colons are often used for strictly numeric ratios, to avoid confusion with subtraction and division: a 3:1 ratio; a three-to-one ratio

Use an en dash for the names of two or more entities in an attributive compound.

the Seifert–van Kampen theorem; the Alpher–Bethe–Gamow theory

the Seeliger–Donker-Voet scheme (developed by Seeliger and Donker-Voet)

Comet Hale–Bopp or just Hale–Bopp (discovered by Hale and Bopp)

Do not use an en dash for hyphenated personal names, even when they are used as adjectives:

Lennard-Jones potential with a hyphen: named after John Lennard-Jones

Do not use spaces around the en dash in any of the compounds above.

Instead of a hyphen, when applying a prefix or suffix to a compound that includes a space or a dash

ex–prime minister Thatcher (consider recasting: former prime minister Thatcher)

pre–World War II aircraft (consider recasting: aircraft from before World War II)

post–September 11 anti-war movement

Trans–New Guinea languages

post–Hartree–Fock

Turks and Caicos–based company

a Rogers and Hammerstein–esque musical number

The en dashes in the examples above are unspaced.

Category names follow the main article, e.g., Trans–New Guinea languages. However, the principle is not extended when compounding other words in category names, e.g., Tennis-related lists and Table tennis-related lists both use hyphens.

To separate parts of an item in a list

Spaced en dashes are sometimes used between parts of list items. For example:

James Galway – flute; Anne-Sophie Mutter – violin; Maurizio Pollini – piano.

or

"The Future" – 7:21

"Ain't No Cure for Love" – 6:17

"Bird on the Wire" – 6:14

Other uses (en dash only)

The en dash (–) has other roles, beyond its use as a sentence-punctuating dash (see immediately above). It is often analogous to the hyphen (see § Hyphens), which joins components more strongly than the en dash; or to the slash (see § Slashes), which separates alternatives more definitely. Consider the exact meaning when choosing which to use.

Other uses (em dash only)

An indented em dash may be used before a name or other source when attributing below a block quotation, poem, etc. This dash should not be fully spaced, though it is best for metadata and accessibility reasons to hair-space it from the name. Most of Wikipedia's quotation templates with attribution-related parameters already provide this formatting.

For example, in5—hair spaceCharlotte Brontë will produce:

— Charlotte Brontë

Other dashes

Do not use typewriter approximations or other substitutes, such as two hyphens (--), for em or en dashes.

For a negative sign or subtraction operator use U+2212 − MINUS SIGN (HTML − · −), which can also be generated by clicking on the − following the ± in the Insert toolbar beneath the edit window. Do not use U+2212 − inside a <math> tag, as the character gives a syntax error; instead use a normal hyphen U+002D - .

Slashes (strokes)

Generally, avoid joining two words with a slash, also called a forward slash, stroke or solidus (/), because it suggests that the words are related without specifying how. Replace with clearer wording.

An example: The parent/instructor must be present at all times. Must both be present? (Then write the parent and the instructor.) Must at least one be present? (Then write the parent or the instructor.) Are they the same person? (Use a hyphen: the parent-instructor.)

In circumstances involving a distinction or disjunction, the en dash (see above) is usually preferable to the slash: the digital–analog distinction.

An unspaced slash may be used:

1. to indicate phonemic pronunciations (rivet is pronounced /ˈrɪvət/)
2. in a fraction (7/8)
3. to indicate regular defined yearly periods that do not coincide with calendar years (e.g., the 2009/2010 fiscal year), if that is the convention used in reliable sources
4. to express a ratio, in a form in which a slash is conventionally used (e.g., the price-to-earnings ratio, or P/E ratio for short)
5. where a slash occurs in an expression or abbreviation widely used elsewhere, and a different construction would be inaccurate, unfamiliar, or ambiguous (e.g., w/o)

A spaced slash may be used:

1. to separate run-in lines in quoted poetry or song (To be or not to be: that is the question: / Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer / The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune), or rarely in quoted prose, where careful marking of a paragraph break is textually important
2. to separate items that include at least one internal space (the NY 31 east / NY 370 exit), where for some reason use of a slash is unavoidable

To avoid awkward linebreaks, code spaced slashes (and fraction slashes) with a non-breaking space on the left and a normal space on the right, as in: My mama told me&nbsp;/ You better shop around. For short constructions, both spaces should be non-breaking: x&nbsp;/&nbsp;y. On the other hand, if two long words are connected by an unspaced slash, an wbr added after the slash will allow a linebreak at that point.

Do not use the backslash character (\) in place of a slash.

Prefer the division operator (÷) to slash or fraction slash when representing elementary arithmetic in general text: {{{1}}}. In more advanced mathematical formulas, a vinculum or slash is preferred: x n n ! {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {x^{n}}{n!}}} \textstyle {\frac {x^{n}}{n!}} or xn/n!.

And/or

Avoid writing and/or unless other constructions would be lengthy or awkward. Instead of Most had trauma and/or smoke inhalation, write simply trauma or smoke inhalation (which would normally be interpreted as an inclusive-or to imply or both); or, for emphasis or precision or both, write trauma or smoke inhalation or both. Where more than two possibilities are present, instead of x, y, and/or z write one or more of x, y, and z or some or all of x, y, and z.

Number (pound, hash) sign and numero

Avoid using the # symbol (known as the number sign, hash sign, pound sign, or octothorpe) when referring to numbers or rankings. Instead write number, No. or Nos.; do not use the symbol №. For example:

Incorrect: {{ex|Her album reached #1 in the UK album charts.

Correct: Her album reached number one in the UK album charts.

Correct: Her album reached No. 1 in the UK album charts.

Correct: Her albums Foo and Bar reached Nos. 1 and 3.

Correct: Her albums Foo and Bar reached numbers one and three in the UK album charts.

An exception is issue numbers of comic books, which unlike for other periodicals are conventionally given in general text in the form #1, unless a volume is also given, in which case write volume two, number seven or Vol. 2, No. 7. Another exception are periodical publications carrying both, issue and number designations (typically one being a year-relative and the other an absolute value); they should be given in the form 2 #143 in citations, or be spelt out as Iss. 2, No. 143 in text. When using the abbreviations, write abbr, abbr, abbr, or abbr, at first occurrence.

Terminal punctuation

Exclamation and question marks have almost no application in encyclopedic writing.

For the use of three periods in succession, see § Ellipses.

In some contexts, no terminal punctuation is necessary. In such cases, the sentence often does not start with a capital letter. See § Quotations and § Quotation marks. Sentence fragments in captions or lists should in most cases not end with a period. See § Formatting of captions and § Bulleted and numbered lists.

Spacing

In normal text, never put a space before a comma, semicolon, colon, period/full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark (even in quoted material; see § Typographic conformity).

Some editors type two spaces after a period/full stop; these are condensed to one when the page is rendered, so what the reader sees is not affected – see § Sentence spacing.

Consecutive punctuation marks

Where a word or phrase that includes terminal punctuation ends a sentence, do not add a second terminal punctuation mark. If a quoted phrase or title ends in a question mark or exclamation mark, it may confuse readers as to the nature of the article sentence containing it, and so is usually better reworded to be mid-sentence. Where such a word or phrase occurs mid-sentence, new terminal punctuation (usually a period) must be added at the end.

Incorrect: Slovak returned to the Red Hot Chili Peppers in 1985 after growing tired of What Is This?.

Acceptable: Slovak returned to the Red Hot Chili Peppers in 1985 after growing tired of What Is This?

Better: Slovak, having grown tired of What Is This?, returned to the Red Hot Chili Peppers in 1985.

Incorrect: He made several films with Sammy Davis Jr..

Correct: He made several films with Sammy Davis Jr.

Punctuation and footnotes

Ref tags (<ref>...</ref>) are used to create footnotes (sometimes called endnotes or just notes), as citation footnotes and sometimes explanatory notes. All ref tags should immediately follow the text to which the footnote applies, with no intervening space), and are placed after adjacent punctuation, not before (apart from the exceptions below). Adjacent ref tags should have no space between them, nor should there be any between ref tags and inline dispute/cleanup templates.

When ref tags are used, a footnote list must be added, and this is usually placed in the References section, near the end of the article in the standard appendices and footers.

Note: In the examples below, the superscript callouts (for example here) are dummies and are not clickable.

Example: Flightless birds have a reduced keel, and they also have smaller wing bones than flying birds of similar size.[11][12]

Exceptions: Ref tags are placed before dashes, not after. Where a footnote applies only to material within parentheses, the ref tags belong just before the closing parenthesis.

Example: Paris is not the capital city of England – the capital of which is London [10] – but that of France,[11] and it is widely known as a beautiful city.[12][non-primary source needed]

Example: Kim Jong-un (Korean: 김정은;[10] Hanja: 金正恩[11]) is the Supreme Leader of North Korea and the leader of the Workers' Party of Korea.[a]

Punctuation after formulae=

A sentence that ends with a formula should have terminal punctuation (period, exclamation mark, or question mark) after the formula. Within a sentence, place other punctuation (such as commas or colons) after the formula just as if the text were not a formula.

Dates and time

Dates should be linked only when they are germane and topical to the subject.

Time of day

Time of day is normally expressed in figures rather than being spelled out. Use context to determine whether to use the 12- or 24-hour.

Twelve-hour clock times are written in one of two forms: 11:15 a.m. and 2:30 p.m., or 11:15 am and 2:30 pm. Include a non-breaking space. Use noon and midnight rather than 12 pm and 12 am; it may need to be specified whether midnight refers to the start or end of a date.

Twenty-four-hour clock times are written in the form 08:15 and 22:55, with no suffix. Midnight written as 00:00 begins the day; 24:00 ends it.

Dates

Full dates are formatted 10 June 1921 or June 10, 1921; or where the year is omitted, use 10 June or June 10.

The dates in the text of any one article should all have the same format (day-first or month-first).

Dates in quotations and titles are always left as-is.

If a numerical format is required (e.g., for conciseness in lists and tables), use the YYYY-MM-DD format: 2005-04-03.

Articles on topics with strong ties to a particular English-speaking country should generally use the more common date format for that country (month-first for the US, except in military usage; day-first for most others; articles related to Canada may use either consistently). Otherwise, do not change an article from one date format to the other without good reason.

Months

For month and year, write June 1921, with no comma.

Abbreviations for months, such as Feb, are used only where space is extremely limited. Such abbreviations should use three letters only, and should not be followed by a period (full point) except at the end of a sentence.

Seasons

Avoid ambiguous references to seasons, which are different in the southern and northern hemispheres.

Names of seasons may be used when there is a logical connection to the event they are describing (the autumn harvest) or when referring to a phase of a natural yearly cycle (migration typically starts in mid-spring). Otherwise, neutral wording is usually preferable (He was elected in November 1992, not He was elected in the fall of 1992).

Journals and other publications that are issued seasonally (e.g., "Summer 2005") should be dated as such in citations.

Years and longer periods

Do not use the year before the digits (1995, not the year 1995), unless the meaning would otherwise be unclear.

Decades are written in the format the 1980s, with no apostrophe. Use the two-digit form ('80s) only with an established social or cultural meaning. Avoid forms such as the 1700s that could refer to ten or a hundred years.

Years are denoted by AD and BC or, equivalently, CE and BCE. Use only one system within an article, and do not change from one system to the other without good reason. The abbreviations are written without periods, and with a non-breaking space, as in 5 BC. Omit AD or CE unless omitting it would cause ambiguity.

Current

The term "current" should be avoided. What is current today may not be tomorrow; situations change over time. Instead, use date- and time-specific text. To help keep information updated use the as of template.

Incorrect: He is the current ambassador to ...

Correct: As of March 2011, he is the ambassador to ...

Numbers

Integers from zero to nine are spelled out in words. Integers greater than nine expressible in one or two words may be expressed either in numerals or in words. Other numbers are given in numerals or in forms such as 21 million.

In general, use a comma in numbers with five or more digits to the left of the decimal point. Numbers with four digits are at the editor's discretion: 12,345, but either 1,000 or 1000.

In general, use decimals rather than fractions for measurements, but fractions are sometimes used with imperial and U.S. customary units. Keep articles internally consistent.

Scientific notation (e.g., 5.8×107 kg) is preferred in scientific contexts. Markup: val.

Write out "million" and "billion" on the first use. After that, unspaced "M" can be used for millions and "B" for billions: 70M and 25B.

Write 3% or three per cent, but not, three percent, 3 % (with a space), or three %. "Percent" is American usage, and "per cent" is British usage. In ranges of percentages written with an en dash, write only a single percent sign: 3–14%.

Indicate uncertainties as e.g., (1.534±0.35)×1023 m. Markup: {{t|val|val|1.534{{!}0.35|e=23|u=m}}.

Currencies

Use the full abbreviation on first use (US$ for the US dollar and A$ for the Australian dollar), unless the currency is already clear from context. For example, the government of the United States always spends money in American dollars, and never in Canadian or Australian dollars.

Use only one symbol with ranges, as in $250–300.

In articles that are not specific to a country, express amounts of money in United States dollars, euros, or pounds sterling. Do not link the names or symbols of currencies that are commonly known to English-speakers ($, £, €), unless there is a particular reason to do so; do not use potentially ambiguous currency symbols, unless the meaning is clear in the context.

In country-specific articles, use the currency of the country. On first occurrence, consider including conversion to US dollars, euros, or pounds sterling, at a rate appropriate to the context. For example, Since 2001 the grant has been 10,000,000 Swedish kronor (€1.0M as of August 2009). Wording such as "approx." is not appropriate for simple rounding-off of the converted amount.

Generally, use the full name of a currency, and link it on its first appearance if English-speakers are likely to be unfamiliar with it (52 Nepalese rupees); subsequent occurrences can use the currency sign (just 88 Rs).

Most currency symbols are placed before the number, and unspaced ($123, not $ 123).

Units of measurement

The main unit in which a quantity is expressed should generally be an SI unit or non-SI unit officially accepted for use with the SI. However, acientific articles may also use specialist units appropriate for the branch of science in question.

In non-scientific articles with strong ties to the United States, the main unit is generally a U.S. customary unit (22 pounds (10 kg)).

In non-scientific articles with strong ties to the United Kingdom, although the main unit is generally a metric unit (10 kilograms (22 lb)), imperial units are still used as the main units in some contexts (7 miles (11 km) by road).

Where English-speaking countries use different units for the same measurement, provide a conversion in parentheses. Examples: the Mississippi River is 2,320 miles (3,734 km) long; the Murray River is 2,375 kilometres (1,476 mi) long. The convert template is useful for producing such expressions.

In a direct quotation, always retain the source's units. Any conversion should follow in square brackets (or, an obscure use of units can be explained in a footnote).

Where space is limited (such as tables, infoboxes, parenthetical notes, and mathematical formulas) unit symbols are preferred. In prose, unit names should be given in full if used only a few times but symbols may be used when a unit (especially one with a long name) is used repeatedly after spelling out the first use (e.g., Up to 15 kilograms of filler is used for a batch of 250 kg), except for unit names that are hardly ever spelled out (°C rather than degrees Celsius).

Most unit names are not capitalized.

Use "per" when writing out a unit, rather than a slash: metre per second, not metre/second.

Units unfamiliar to general readers should be presented as a name–symbol pair on first use, linking the unit name (Energies were originally 2.3 megaelectronvolts (MeV), but were eventually 6 MeV).

Unit symbols are preceded by figures, not by spelled-out numbers. Values and unit symbols are separated by a non-breaking space. For example, 5 min. The percent sign and units of degrees, minutes, and seconds for angles and coordinates are unspaced.

Common mathematical symbols

For a negative sign or subtraction operator, use a minus sign (−, Unicode character U+2212 MINUS SIGN). Input by clicking on it in the insert box beneath the edit window or by typing −.

For multiplication, use a multiplication sign (U+00D7 × MULTIPLICATION SIGN) or a dot (U+22C5 ⋅ DOT OPERATOR), which are input by clicking on them in the edit toolbox under the edit window or by entering × or ⋅. Care should be taken not to confuse the dot operator (in the "Math and logic" section of the edit toolbox) with an interpunct (in the "Insert" section of the edit toolbox) or a bullet. The letter x should not be used to indicate multiplication, but it is used (unspaced) as the substitute for "by" in terms such as 4x4.

Exponentiation is indicated by a superscript, an (typed as a<sup>n</sup>).

Do not use programming language notation outside computer program text. In most programming languages, subtraction, multiplication, and exponentiation are represented by the hyphen-minus -, the asterisk *, and either the caret ^ or the double asterisk **; scientific notation is replaced by E notation.

Symbols for binary operators and relations are usually spaced on both sides:

plus, minus, and plus-or-minus (as binary operators): +, −, ± (as in 5 − 3);

multiplication and division: ×, ÷;

equals, does not equal, equals approximately: =, ≠, ≈;

is less than, is less than or equal to, is greater than, is greater than or equal to: <, ≤, >, ≥.

Symbols for unary operators are closed-up to their operand:

positive, negative, and positive-or-negative signs: +, −, ± (as in −3);

other unary operators, such as the exclamation mark as a factorial sign (as in 5!).

Variables are italicized, but digits and punctuation are not; only x and y are italicized in 2(5x + y)2.

The math template can be used to style formulas in a serif font to help distinguish them from surrounding text. For single variables, mvar is also available.

Grammar and usage

Possessives

For the apostrophe character, see § Apostrophes.

For the possessive of singular nouns, including proper names and words ending in s, add 's (my daughter's achievement, my niece's wedding, Cortez's men, the boss's office, Illinois's largest employer, Descartes's philosophy, Verreaux's eagle). Exception: abstract nouns ending with an /s/ sound, when followed by sake (for goodness' sake, for his conscience' sake). If a name ending in s or z would be difficult to pronounce with 's added (Jesus's teachings), consider rewording (the teachings of Jesus).

Plural nouns

For a normal plural noun, ending with a pronounced s, form the possessive by adding just an apostrophe (my sons' wives, my nieces' weddings).

For a plural noun not ending with a pronounced s, add 's (women's careers, people's habits, mice's whiskers; The two Dumas's careers were controversial, but where rewording is an option, this may be better: The career of each Dumas was controversial).

Official names

Official names (of companies, organizations, or places) should not be altered. (St Thomas' Hospital should therefore not be rendered as St Thomas's Hospital or St. Thomas Hospital, even for consistency.)

First-person pronouns

To maintain an objective and impersonal encyclopedic voice, an article should never refer to its editors or readers using I, my, we, us, or similar forms: We note that some have argued against our proposal. But some such forms are acceptable in certain figurative uses. For example:

In historical articles to mean the modern world as a whole: Only portions of De re publica have come down to us.

The author's we found in scientific writing (We construct S as follows), though rephrasing to use passive voice may be preferable (S is constructed as follows).

Second-person pronouns

Avoid addressing the reader using you or your, which sets an inappropriate tone.

Use a noun or a third-person pronoun: instead of When you move past "Go", you collect $200, use A player passing "Go" collects $200, or When a player passes "Go", they collect $200.

If a person cannot be specified, or when implying "anyone" as a subject, the pronoun one may be used: a sense that one is being watched. Other constructions may be preferable if one seems stilted: a person's sense of being watched.

The passive voice may sometimes be used instead: Impurities are removed before bottling.

Do not bait links, e.g., Click here for more information; let the browser's normal highlighting invite a click. ("Click here" also makes no sense to someone reading on paper.)

Likewise, "See: (reference)" or "Consider ..." are milder second-person baits, common in academic writing (pedagogy). This interactive personality is inconsistent with an encyclopedia's passive presentation of objective matter.

"See" and the like can be used to internally cross-reference other material. Do not italicize words like "see". Such a cross reference should be parenthetical, so the article text stands alone if the parenthetical is removed. It is usually better to rewrite the material to integrate these links contextually rather than use explicit self-references.

Do not address the reader with the Socratic method by asking and answering questions. Did Bacon write Shakespeare? Then who wrote Bacon?

Plurals

Use the appropriate plural; allow for cases (such as excursus or hanif) in which a word is now listed in major English dictionaries, and normally takes an s or es plural, not its original plural: two excursuses, not two excursus as in Latin; two hanifs, not two hunafa as in Arabic.

Some collective nouns – such as team (and proper names of them), army, company, crowd, fleet, government, majority, mess, number, pack, and party – may refer either to a single entity or to the members that compose it. In British English, such words are sometimes treated as singular, but more often treated as plural, according to context. Exceptionally, names of towns and countries usually take singular verbs (unless they are being used to refer to a team or company by that name, or when discussing actions of that entity's government). For example, in England are playing Germany tonight, England refers to a football team; but in England is the most populous country of the United Kingdom, it refers to the country. In North American English, these words (and the United States, for historical reasons) are almost invariably treated as singular; the major exception is when sports teams are referred to by nicknames, plural verbs are commonly used to match e.g., the Heat are playing the Lakers.

Verb tense

By default, write articles in the present tense, including those covering works of fiction and products or works that have been discontinued. However, articles about periodicals that are no longer being produced should normally, and with commonsense exceptions, use the past tense. Generally, do not use past tense except for past events, subjects that are dead or no longer meaningfully exist, or periodicals and similar written material that are no longer being produced.

The PDP-10 is a mainframe computer family manufactured by Digital Equipment Corporation from 1966 into the 1980s.

Earth: Final Conflict is a Canadian science fiction television series that ran for five seasons between October 6, 1997, and May 20, 2002.

The Gordon Riots of 1780 were ...

The Beatles were an English rock band that formed in Liverpool in 1960.

Barack Obama is a former president of the United States (not Barack Obama was a president of the United States).

Jumbo Comics was an adventure anthology comic book published by Fiction House from 1938 to 1953

A Prairie Home Companion is a radio show that aired live from 1974 to 2016 (not A Prairie Home Companion was a radio show).

Flappy Bird is a mobile game developed by Vietnamese video game artist and programmer Dong Nguyen (not Flappy Bird was a mobile game)

Tense can be used to distinguish between current and former status of a subject: Dún Aonghasa is the ruin of a prehistoric Irish cliff fort. Its original shape was presumably oval or D-shaped, but parts of the cliff and fort have since collapsed into the sea. (Emphasis added to distinguish the different tense usages; Dún Aonghasa is a structure that was later damaged by an event.)

Vocabulary

Avoid contractions, which have little place in formal writing. For example, write do not instead of don't. Use of o'clock is an exception. Contracted titles such as Dr. and St generally should not be used but may apply in some contexts (e.g., quoted material, place names, titles of works).

Gender-neutral language

Use gender-neutral language – avoiding the generic he and generic she, for example – where this can be done with clarity and precision. This does not apply to direct quotations or the titles of works (The Ascent of Man), which should not be altered, or to wording about one-gender contexts, such as an all-female school (When any student breaks that rule, she loses privileges).

References to space programs, past, present and future, should use gender-neutral phrasing: human spaceflight, robotic probe, uncrewed mission, crewed spacecraft, piloted, unpiloted, astronaut, cosmonaut, not manned or unmanned. Direct quotations and proper nouns that use gendered words should not be changed, like Manned Maneuvering Unit.

Ships may be referred to using either neuter forms ("it", "its") or feminine forms ("she", "her", "hers"). Either usage is acceptable, but each article should be internally consistent and employ one or the other exclusively. As with all optional styles, articles should not be changed from one style to another unless there is a substantial reason to do so.

Contested vocabulary

Avoid words and phrases that give the impression of straining for formality, that are unnecessarily regional, or that are not widely accepted. See List of English words with disputed usage and Wikipedia:List of commonly misused English words.

Instructional and presumptuous language

Avoid such phrases as remember that and note that, which address readers directly in an unencyclopedic tone and lean toward instructional. They are a subtle form of self-reference, "breaking the fourth wall". Similarly, phrases such as of course, naturally, obviously, clearly, and actually make presumptions about readers' knowledge, may express a viewpoint, and may call into question the reason for including the information in the first place. Do not tell readers that something is ironic, surprising, unexpected, amusing, coincidental, etc. Simply state the sourced facts and allow readers to draw their own conclusions. Such constructions can usually just be deleted, leaving behind proper sentences with a more academic and less pushy tone: Note that this was naturally subject to controversy in more conservative newspapers. becomes This was subject to controversy in more conservative newspapers.

Avoid rhetorical questions, especially in headings. Use a heading of Active listening and text such as The term active listening, coined in ..., not What is active listening?.

A neutral cross-reference is permissible – e.g., (see also Bulverism) – but it is usually better recast as a sentence with a link. Bulverism, also known as the psychogenetic fallacy, is a related logic flaw.

Subset terms

A subset term identifies a set of members of a larger class. Common subset terms are including, among, and etc. Avoid redundant subset terms (e.g., mis-constructions like Among the most well-known members of the fraternity are included two members of the Onassis family or The elements in stars include hydrogen, helium, etc.). The word including does not introduce a complete list; instead, use consisting of, or composed of.

Identity

When there is a discrepancy between the term most commonly used by reliable sources for a person or group and the term that person or group uses for themselves, use the term that is most commonly used by recent reliable sources. If it is unclear which is most used, use the term that the person or group uses.

Use specific terminology. For example, it is often more appropriate for people or things from Ethiopia (a country in Africa) to be described as Ethiopian, not carelessly (with the risk of stereotyping) as African.

Foreign terms

No common usage in English

Foreign terms should be used sparingly.

Use italics for phrases in other languages and for isolated foreign words that are not current in English. Where possible, this is best done with the lang template using the appropriate ISO language code, e.g., lang. The lang template and related templates automatically italicize text for Latin-alphabet scripts, so do not add separate italics markup around or within them. Non-Latin-based scripts like Chinese should not be italicized, since it is already obvious the material cannot be English, and some such scripts do not support italicization.

Common usage in English

Loanwords and borrowed phrases that have common usage in English – Gestapo, samurai, vice versa – do not require italics. A rule of thumb is to not italicize words that appear unitalicized in major general-purpose English-language dictionaries.

Spelling and romanization

Names not originally written in one of the Latin-script alphabets (written for example in Greek, Cyrillic, or Chinese scripts) must be given a romanized form for use in English. Use a systematically transliterated or otherwise romanized name (Aleksandr Tymoczko, Wang Yanhong); but if there is a more common English form of the name (Tchaikovsky, Chiang Kai-shek), use that form instead.

The use of diacritics (such as accent marks) for foreign words is neither encouraged nor discouraged; their usage depends on whether they appear in verifiable reliable sources in English, and on the constraints imposed by specialized Wikipedia guidelines. Provide redirects from alternative forms that use or exclude diacritics.

Proper names in languages which use the Latin alphabet can include characters with diacritics, ligatures, and others that are not commonly used in present-day English. Wikipedia normally retains these special characters, except where there is a well-established English spelling that replaces them with English standard letters. Examples:

The name of the article on Hungarian mathematician Paul Erdős is spelt with the double acute accent, and the alternative spellings Paul Erdos and Paul Erdös redirect to that article.

Similarly, the name of the article on the Nordic god Ægir is so spelt, with redirects from the ligature-free form Aegir and the Swedish spelling Ägir.

However, the Spanish region named Aragón in Spanish and Aragó in Catalan is given as Aragon, without the accent, as this is the established English name (the non-English names appear, with their diacritics, in its lead section).

Such matters are determined on an topic-by-topic basis; a small group of editors cannot "prohibit" or "require" diacritics across a category of articles.

Spell a name consistently in the title and the text of an article. For a foreign name, phrase, or word, adopt the spelling most commonly used in English-language reliable sources, including but not limited to those already cited in the article.

A non-English proper name should generally not be italicized, unless it would be for some other reason; this is most commonly when it is the title of a major published work, as in Les Liaisons dangereuses; or when it is being compared in a words-as-words manner to another name for the same subject, e.g., Nuremberg (German: Nürnberg). When the name should not be italicized, language markup can still be used to ensure proper pronunciation in screen readers, with the |italic=unset parameter: lang.

=Other non-English concerns

1. For non-English vernacular names of species, see § Animals, plants, and other organisms.
2. For handling of foreign-language quotations, see § Foreign-language quotations.
3. For non-English characters that resemble single quotation marks and apostrophes, see § Foreign characters that resemble apostrophes.
4. For actual non-English quotation characters, see § Quotation characters.
5. For capitalization in foreign-language work titles, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Titles § Capitalization in foreign-language titles.
6. For interlinear glosses and their particular uses of small-caps (and italics and single quotes), see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Text formatting § All caps and small caps.

Technical language

Some topics are intrinsically technical, but editors should try to make them understandable to as many readers as possible. Minimize jargon, or at least explain it or tag it using technical or echnical-statement for other editors to fix. For unavoidably technical articles, a separate introductory article (like Introduction to general relativity) may be the best solution. Avoid excessive wikilinking (linking within the wiki) as a substitute for parenthetic explanations such as the one in this sentence. Do not introduce new and specialized words simply to teach them to the reader when more common alternatives will do. When the notions named by jargon are too complex to explain concisely in a few parenthetical words, write one level down. For example, consider adding a brief background section with main tags pointing to the full treatment article(s) of the prerequisite notions; this approach is practical only when the prerequisite concepts are central to the exposition of the article's main topic and when such prerequisites are not too numerous. Short articles, such as stubs, generally do not have such sections.

Geographical items

Places should generally be referred to consistently by the same name as in the title of their article. Exceptions are made if there is a widely accepted historical English name appropriate to the given context. In cases where such a historical name is used, it should be followed by the modern name in parentheses on the first occurrence of the name in applicable sections of the article. This resembles linking; it should not be done to the detriment of style. On the other hand, it is probably better to provide such a variant too often than too rarely. If more than one historical name is applicable for a given context, the other names should be added after the modern English name, that is: "historical name (modern name, other historical names)".

Media files

See also: Upload policy

Images

1. Each image should be inside the level 2 section to which it relates, within the section defined by the most recent ==Heading== delimited by two equal signs, or at the top of the lead section. Do not place images immediately above section headings.
2. Avoid sandwiching text horizontally between two images that face each other, and between an image and an infobox or similar.
3. It is often preferable to place images of people so they "look" toward the text. Do not achieve this by reversing the image.
4. Avoid referring to images as being to the left, the right, above or below, because image placement varies with platform, and is meaningless to people using screen readers; instead, use captions to identify images.
5. An image's |alt= text takes the image's place for those who are unable to see the image.

Other media files

Other media files include video and audio files. Style recommendations for such files largely follow recommendations for image files (as far as applicable).

Avoid using images to convey text

Textual information should almost always be entered as text rather than as an image. True text can be colored and adjusted with CSS tags and templates, but text in images cannot be. Images are not searchable, are slower to download, and are unlikely to be read as text by devices for the visually impaired. Any important textual information in an image should also appear in the image's alt text, caption, or other nearby text.

Captions

Photographs and other graphics should have captions, unless they are unambiguous depictions of the subject of the article or when they are "self-captioning" images (such as reproductions of album or book covers). In a biography article no caption is necessary for a portrait of the subject pictured alone, but one might be used to give the year, the subject's age, or other circumstances of the portrait along with the name of the subject. Formatting of captions

1. Captions normally start with a capital letter.
2. Most captions are not complete sentences but merely sentence fragments which should not end with a period. However, if any complete sentence occurs in a caption, then every sentence and every sentence fragment in that caption should end with a period.
3. The text of captions should not be specially formatted, except in ways that would apply if it occurred in the main text (e.g., italics for the Latin name of a species).
4. Captions should be succinct; more information can be included on its description page, or in the main text.
5. Captions for technical charts and diagrams may need to be substantially longer than usual; they should fully describe all elements of the image and indicate its significance.

Bulleted and numbered lists

1. Do not use lists if a passage is read easily as plain paragraphs.
2. Use proper wikimarkup- or template-based list code.
3. Do not leave blank lines between items in a bulleted or numbered list unless there is a reason to do so, since this causes the Wiki software to interpret each item as beginning a new list.
4. Indents (such as this) are permitted if the elements are "child" items.
5. Use numbers rather than bullets only if:
   1. a need to refer to the elements by number may arise;
   2. the sequence of the items is critical; or
   3. the numbering has some independent meaning, for example in a listing of musical tracks.
6. Use the same grammatical form for all elements in a list, and do not mix sentences and sentence fragments as elements, for example when the elements are:
   1. complete sentences – each one is formatted with sentence case (its first letter is capitalized) and a final period (full point);
   2. sentence fragments – the list is typically introduced by an introductory fragment ending with a colon;
   3. titles of works – they retain the original capitalization of the titles;
   4. other elements – they are formatted consistently in either sentence case or lower case.

Links

Wikilinks

Make links only where they are relevant and helpful in the context: Excessive use of hyperlinks can be distracting and may slow the reader down. Redundant links (like the one in the tallest people on Earth) clutter the page and make future maintenance harder. High-value links that are worth pursuing should stand out clearly.

Linking to sections: A hash sign (#) followed by the appropriate heading will lead to a relevant part of a page. For example, [[Apostrophe#Use in non-English names]] links to a particular section of the article Apostrophe.

Initial capitalization: MediaWiki software does not require that wikilinks begin with an upper-case character. Capitalize the first letter only where this is naturally called for, or when specifically referring to the linked article by its name: Snakes are often venomous, but lizards only rarely (see Poison).

External links

External links should not normally be used in the body of an article. Instead, articles can include an External links section at the end, pointing to further information outside the wiki as distinct from citing sources. The standard format is a primary heading, ==External links==, followed by a bulleted list of links. Identify the link and briefly indicate its relevance to the article. For example:

• [https://history.nih.gov/exhibits/history/index.html History of NIH]
• [https://nih.gov/ National Institutes of Health homepage]

These will appear as:

• History of NIH
• National Institutes of Health homepage

Where appropriate, use external link templates such as official website and url.

Miscellaneous

Keep markup simple

Other things being equal, keep markup simple. This makes wikitext easier to understand and edit, and the results seen by the reader more predictable. Use HTML and CSS markup sparingly.

In general, wikitext formatting is considered easier to use than HTML and wikitext is preferred if there are equivalents. Obsolete elements and attributes should be updated or removed. There are many templates that allow HTML markup to be used without putting it in articles directly, such as em and strong.

An HTML character entity is sometimes better than the equivalent Unicode character, which may be difficult to identify in edit mode; for example, Α is explicit whereas Α (the upper-case form of Greek α) may be misidentified as the Latin A.

Formatting issues

Modifications in font size, blank space, and color are an issue for the Wikipedia site-wide style sheet and should be reserved for special cases only.

Typically, the use of custom font styles will:

• reduce consistency, since the text will no longer look uniform;
• reduce usability, since it might be impossible for people with custom style sheets (for accessibility reasons, for example) to override it, and it might clash with a different skin or inconvenience people with color blindness (see below); and
• cause disputes, since other editors may disagree aesthetically with the choice of style.

Specify font sizes relatively (for example with font-size: 85%) rather than absolutely (like font-size: 8pt). The resulting font size of any text should not drop below 85% of the page's default font size.

Color coding

Do not use color alone to mark differences in text: they may be invisible to people with color blindness and useless in black-and-white printouts or displays.

Choose colors that are distinguishable by readers with the most common form of colorblindness, such as maroon and teal, and additionally mark the differences with change of font or some other means (maroon and alternative font face, teal). Avoid low contrast between text and background colors. See also color coding.

Even for readers with unimpaired color vision, excessive background shading of table entries impedes readability and recognition of Wikilinks. Background color should be used only as a supplementary visual cue and should be subtle (consider using lighter, less-dominant pastel hues) rather than glaring.

Indentation

Do not abuse block quotation markup to indent non-quotations. Various templates are available for indentation, including block indent and (for inline use) in5.

Avoid : (description list markup) for simple visual indentation in articles (common as it may be on talk pages). It causes accessibility problems and outputs invalid HTML.

Controlling line breaks

It is sometimes desirable to force a text segment to appear entirely on a single line‍—‌that is, to prevent a line break (line wrap) from occurring anywhere within it.

A non-breaking space (or hard space) will never be used as a line-break point. Markup: for 19 kg, code 19 kg or 19{{nbsp}}kg.

Or use nowrap, nobreak, or nobr (all equivalent). Markup: for 5° 24′ N code nobr.

It is desirable to prevent line breaks where breaking across lines might be confusing or awkward. For example:

17nbspkg

ADnbsp565

2:50nbsppm

£11nbspbillion

Maynbsp2014

nobr

Boeingnbsp747

123nbspElm Street

World WarnbspII

Pope PaulnbspVI

Whether a non-breaking space is appropriate depends on context: whereas it is appropriate to use 12nbspMB in prose, it may be counterproductive in a table (where an unattractive break may be acceptable to conserve precious horizontal space) and unnecessary in a short parameter value in an infobox (where a break would never occur anyway).

A line break may occur at a thin space ( , or thinsp), which is sometimes used to correct too-close placement of adjacent characters. To prevent this, consider using nobr.

Insert non-breaking and thin spaces as named character reference (  or  ), or as templates that generate these (nbsp, thinsp), and never by entering them directly into the edit window from the keyboard – they are visually indistinguishable from regular spaces, and later editors will be unable to see what they are. Inside wikilinks, a construction such as [[World War II]] works but [[World War{{nbsp}}II]] doesn't.

Scrolling lists and collapsible content

Scrolling lists, and collapsible templates that toggle text display between hide and show, can interfere with readers' ability to access our content. Such mechanisms are not to be used to conceal "spoiler" information. Templates are not normally used to store article text at all, as it interferes with editors' ability to find and edit it.

When such features are used, take care that the content will still be accessible on devices that do not support JavaScript or CSS, and to those who use the mobile version of the site, which has a limited set of features.

Collapsible templates should not conceal article content by default upon page loading. This includes reference lists, tables and lists of article content, image galleries, and image captions. In particular, while some templates support a collapsible parameter or manually-added CSS class, and this is permissible, the collapsed, mw-collapsed, and autocollapse states should not be used in articles to pre-emptively force the closure of these elements, except as noted below. Any information hidden in this way when the page loads will be irreversibly invisible to the aforementioned classes of users, as well as a growing number of low-bandwidth users in Asia who reach an article via Google. Several other CSS classes, used manually or by templates, will render content inaccessible to mobile users.

Collapsed or auto-collapsing cells or sections may be used with tables if it simply repeats information covered in the main text (or is purely supplementary, e.g., several past years of statistics in collapsed tables for comparison with a table of uncollapsed current stats). Auto-collapsing is often a feature of navboxes. A few infoboxes also use pre-collapsed sections for infrequently accessed details. If information in a list, infobox, or other non-navigational content seems extraneous or trivial enough to inspire pre-collapsing it, consider raising a discussion on the article (or template) talk page about whether it should be included at all. If the information is important and the concern is article density or length, consider dividing the article into more sections, integrating unnecessarily list-formatted information into the article prose, or splitting the article.

Invisible comments

Editors use "invisible" comments – not shown in the rendered page seen by readers of the article, but visible in the wiki source when an editor opens the article for editing – to communicate with one another.

Invisible comments are useful for alerting other editors to issues such as common mistakes that regularly occur in the article, a section title's being the target of an incoming link, or pointing to a discussion that established a consensus relating to the article. They should not be used to instruct other editors not to perform certain edits, although where existing local consensus is against making such an edit, they may usefully draw the editor's attention to that. Avoid adding too many invisible comments because they can clutter the wiki source for other editors. Check that your invisible comment does not change the formatting, for example by introducing unwanted white space in the rendered page.

To leave an invisible comment, enclose the text you intend to be read only by editors between <!-- and -->. For example:

<!-- If you change this section title, also change the links to it on the pages .... -->
<!-- When adding table entries, remember to update the total given in the text. -->

This notation can be inserted with a single click in wiki markup, just under the edit pane in edit mode.

Pronunciation
Pronunciation is indicated in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). In most situations, for ease of understanding by the majority of readers and across variants of the language, quite broad IPA transcriptions are best for English pronunciations.For English pronunciations, pronunciation respellings may be used in addition to the IPA.